Maritime Silk Road: The exciting time of 3 cities
Maritime Silk Road trade through Canton, Hong Kong and Macau
Artistic interpretation of popular silk motifs
Maritime Silk Road in the spotlight
The role of the Maritime Silk Road in the global spread of silk is in the spotlight. Admired for its sumptuous texture and unparalleled quality, silk has served as a mark of the wearer’s prestige since ancient times.
Dyeing and winding silk and silk farms at Hoo-Chen (Hangzhou), Mid 19th century, coloured engraving, Collection of Macao Museum
The beguiling textile originated in China, the first country to produce silkworm-cocoon fabrics. As early as the Qin (221-206 BC) and Han (206 BC-220 AD) dynasties, Chinese silk was considered one of the country’s most precious export commodities through overland and maritime trade routes.
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Diving into the Hong Kong Museum of Art’s exhibition, we examined 108 curated items that form a cohesive picture of the silk trade and production during the period, woven through the ports of Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Macau, and the story of East-West cultural exchange.
Hong Kong: a panoramic view of East Point, with premises of Jardine, Matheson & Co., 1857, Pencil and Watercolour on paper, John Smedley (1841-1903), Collection of Hong Kong Museum of Art
To purchase goods from China, one needed the proper payment. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the international currency was silver coins.
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Over 40,000 tonnes of silver flowed into China from Western countries during this period, accounting for about half of global silver production.
Set of ten Ming dynasty (1368-1644) silver ingots
Spanish silver coins, known in China as benyang, were minted in the Spanish Empire during the seventeenth century. These began circulating in China’s coastal regions in the mid to late eighteenth century.
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The reigns of Qing dynasty Emperors Daoguang and Xianfeng (1821-1861) saw benyang become the official silver coin in circulation. The dollar sign was said to be inspired by the coin’s image of pillars wrapped by ribbons.
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Mexican silver coins, called yingyang in China, were newly minted in Mexico in 1823, following its independence from Spain two years earlier.
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In the mid-nineteenth century, Mexican silver coins steadily replaced their Spanish counterparts in the Chinese market, becoming the standard silver currency. The Mexican coin’s obverse features an eagle with a snake in its beak, an image derived from its national emblem.
Canton, Hong Kong, and Macau thrived as transit ports
Canton (Modern Guangzhou), Hong Kong, and Macau thrived as transit ports in the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. Canton attracted foreign merchants via maritime routes by purchasing large quantities of raw silk, silk textiles, and other Chinese handicrafts.
Illustrated packing box, Fan Va Tailor Shop, 1960
Macau and Hong Kong became stopover points for merchant ships approaching China via the Maritime Silk Road, a route which saw growing Western traffic in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Map of major maritime trade routes in the Ming and Qing dynasties
From 1757 to 1842, the Qing government made Canton the only Chinese port for foreign trade. From Canton, goods from all over China were exported. Conversely, imported Western goods were distributed throughout China via the port of Canton.
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As such, Canton’s southwestern trading district, the Thirteen Factories, became China’s most prosperous foreign trade site.
Canton embroidered Catholic priest hat, black satin with IHS coat of arms, Early 19th century
Located in the southwestern suburbs of Canton City, foreign merchants stayed in buildings called “factories” through the trade season.
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National flags hung in front of each factory entrance. Many shops near the factories exported paintings and other popular Chinese art, expanding the Western consciousness of China’s rich heritage of art and crafts.
Hong Kong became a hub of international trade
When Canton was the only accessible port for foreign trade, merchant ships heading there utilised Aberdeen, Hong Kong, as a stopover point for replenishment.
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Additionally, the harbour formed by Lamma Island, Shek Pai Wan, and Ap Lei Chau were considered an ideal anchorage for vessels. When Hong Kong opened in 1841, the area saw an increase in trading companies and in Chinese- and Western-style residences.
Famille-rose ceramic bowl with ploughing and weaving pattern, Qinglong period (1736-1795), Ceramics, Collection of Macao Museum
The following year, China’s initial dominance of foreign trade changed when the Qing government opened five treaty ports to foreign trade.
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Shops in China targeting the export market began to relocate to Hong Kong’s Queen’s Road. Slowly but surely, Hong Kong became a hub of international trade.
Late 16th-century copperplate engraving of ‘Amacao’ by Theodore de Bry
The Portuguese settled in Macau to facilitate maritime trade in the mid-sixteenth century. Macau’s port and city quickly rose in population and commerce between the mid-sixteenth and mid-seventeenth centuries.
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In 1757, foreign merchant ships sailing to Canton had to stop and register in Macau. As the Qing government forbade foreign women from entering Canton, Macau also became a temporary home for the families of foreign merchants accompanying them.
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Chinese silk mania took off in Europe in the eighteenth century. In response, vast amounts of silk fabrics, clothing, accessories, and embroidered ornaments were exported from China.
European silk embroidered coat of arms, 19th-century
To cater to Western clientele, Chinese artists embroidered products with Rococo-style floral motifs.
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China’s silk production was concentrated in Jiangnan and the Pearl River Delta. These areas were the traditional and emerging areas of silk manufacturing, respectively.
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The process of silk production was extensive. Producers began by gathering mulberry leaves to feed silkworms.
Parasol for religious procession, 19th century, Silk, wood and metal, Collection of Macao Museum
Silkworms would then be arranged on trellises, which were warmed to keep them spinning their cocoons and prevent rotting. Next, silk would be reeled off and bound into threads.
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Afterwards, silk was wound onto spools. Threads were then prepared for wrapping and wefting. Finally, these fine threads were woven into cloth.
Left: Silk ribbons with Canton glass beads, Silk and glass, Right: Red Canton satin with iris pattern, Silk (satin), Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Collection of Guangdong Museum
As early as February-March, Western companies ordered premium silk from Chinese merchants so their ships could collect deliveries upon arrival at the Eastern ports in August-September.
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The most popular silk export was jacquard fabric, which featured larger patterns woven in. Most exported jacquards featured traditional Chinese patterns in single or dual colours.
Silk fabric was the most popular export
Among the exquisite jacquards on display are Ling, Canton satin, and Luo. Ling, also known as twill damask, has a soft lustre and silky-smooth texture.
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On display is a piece of turquoise damask silk fabric decorated with wisteria patterns, used mainly for underwear, embroidery, mounting Chinese paintings, and calligraphy.
Damask silk in turquoise with wisterias, Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Silk (twill damask), Collection of Guangdong Museum
Canton satin, or floral satin, is a tight, smooth texture with a lustrous sheen. A red Canton satin with iris patterns is displayed, a special tribute offered to the imperial court and a popular export.
Red Canton satin with iris pattern, Qing dynasty (1644-19110, Silk (satin), Collection of Guangdong Museum
Luo, or gauze, is a medium-weight woven silk typically used for robes. A piece on display is pea-green, patterned with symbols of prosperity and longevity.
Silk gauze in pea green with patterns of prosperity and longevity, Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Silk (gauze), Collection of Guangdong Museum
By the nineteenth century, Chinese clothing had become a new trend in Europe. Some noblewomen even dressed up in traditional Chinese women’s attire.
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They would wear embroidered dresses, shawls, and shoes decorated with fantastic beings, including qilin (a Chinese horned and hooved mythical creature), dragons, and phoenixes. To keep up with fashion trends, clothing designs that fuse Chinese and Western elements have emerged in the export market.
Dress with red and green sequin embroidery, 1940s-1960s , Textile, Collection of Macao Museum
Embroidered shawls became popular in Western markets from the mid to late eighteenth century. Made of light and dark-coloured silk with floral and faunal motifs, square shawls were worn in various ways.
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Shawls were often seen at balls in Western society, as upper-class women took pride in their exotic and expensive wares. One particular shawl is Canton embroidered.
Canton embroidered shawl with peonies on beige silk, produced with the three blues embroidery technique, 1850s-1860s, textile, Collection of Guangdong Museum
Produced using the “three blues embroidery” technique, the white-and-blue shawl is adorned with peony patterns in three shades of blue, creating a sense of depth.
The blue threads against beige silk echo the elegance of blue-and-white Chinese porcelain.
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In the late nineteenth century, Chinese clothing was a new category of export goods. Its typically loose tailoring and oriental touch made it ideal for Western ladies’ morning gowns and night robes.
Woman’s robe embroidered with flowers and birds on blue satin, Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Textile, Collection of Guangdong Museum
Among the enchanting robes on display is a loose blue satin robe. Wide-sleeved and slit on both sides, the sapphire blue silk is embroidered with seasonal flowers and flower baskets to symbolise everlasting spring (a Chinese idiom for wealth and prosperity).
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Beyond clothing, eastern silk existed as a class statement in homeware. Canton embroidery was commonly featured on wall hangings, tablecloths, bedding and more from the seventeenth century onward.
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The ornate incorporation of exquisite Chinese embroidery patterns into European interior designs emphasised the owner’s wealth and cultural prestige.
Canton embroidered tablecloth on satin, 19th century, textile
Chinese screens functioned as a means of privacy, dividing domestic space and keeping out draughts. As a popular piece of furniture for the European upper crust, China-imported screens came in folding, standing, and hanging varieties.
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A remarkable example of folding screens comes in a scene of birthday greetings from the Eight Immortals. Comprised of wood and silk, eleven carved panels are embellished with embroidered patterns on white satin. The central pattern depicts the God of Longevity. On either side, the remaining ten panels are ornamented with other Eight Immortals motifs.
Wood and silk Canton embroidered folding screen with a scene of birthday greetings from the Eight Immortals, Qing dynasty (1644-1911)
In the layout of a European bedroom, a standing screen sits in front of the fireplace. The screen comprises a round Canton embroidered panel. Constructed in the wooden pierced style, it combines carving and embroidery techniques.
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The round panel features an embroidered peacock spreading its tail against a white satin background, surrounded by birds and flowers. To the left sits an ornate four-poster bed. The top is fitted with a Canton embroidered bed curtain.
Canton embroidered hanging screen with Eight Views of Canton on white satin, Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Wood, mother of pearl and silk, Collection of Guangdong Museum
Its primary design focuses on seasonal flowers, peacocks, and lotus ponds. The border is a colourful harmony of floral sprays, while the bottom is decorated with woven grid patterns and tassels.
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Hand-painted silk produced in Canton workshops was mainly created for the export market. Decorated with flowers, insects, and birds to satisfy Western tastes, hand-painting saved time as weaving required constant reassembly of the loom.
White silk wallpaper with hand-painted flowers & birds, Qing dynasty (1644-1911)
Close to the end of the exhibit hangs a white silk wallpaper. Hand-painted with floral and bird patterns, the scene depicts twisted, sturdy branches, flowers, and birds that suggest liveliness and a sense of three-dimensionality.
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Chinese export wallpapers were sold in sets to create continuous scenes that could be pasted around an entire room.
Gilded lacquer sewing box with traditional Chinese garden and pavilion scenes, 19th-century, Lacquer, wood and metal, Collection of Macao Museum
As much as western consumers valued pre-embroidered goods, embroidery itself was essential to a seventeenth- and eighteenth-century European upper-class woman’s education.
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Sewing tools such as sewing boxes and tables, mostly gilt-decorated, were manufactured in China and sold in large numbers in Europe.
Lacquered wood sewing table with pattern in gold, (top view) 19th-century, Lacquer, wood, metal and textile, Collection of Macao Museum
One fine example is a lacquered wood sewing table patterned in gold. The black-and-gilt lacquer is crafted in a curved design influenced by the Rococo style.
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Meticulously carved with animal claws at its base, the piece is sturdy and elegant. Lifting the tabletop reveals a division into multiple small compartments for easy storage.
Lacquered wood sewing table with pattern in gold, 19th-century, Lacquer, wood, metal and textile, Collection of Macao Museum
As maritime trade routes spurred greater global interaction during the Ming and Qing dynasties, Chinese silk became a significant commodity. Europeans highly coveted both raw materials and textiles for clothing and interior decoration.
Illustrated packing boxes, Fan Va Tailor Shop, 1960, (left), Kao Cheong Tailor Shop, 1st half of 20th century (right)
The eastern ports of Canton, Hong Kong, and Macau facilitated these trades.
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Through them, the global commodities market experienced an ever-evolving dialogue between eastern and western styles, resulting in an abundance of fresh and unique designs.
Text & photos by Victoria Mae Martyn
