Mughal Court: One of the greatest cultures making beautiful art
Treasures of the Mughal Court presents 100 examples from the golden age
Emperor Jahangir’s wine cup, Court workshops, c.1607-1608, Jade (nephrite)
Amazing Mughal Court
When Mughal court emperor Jahangir held court in his marble halls, guests saw something amazing.
Screen, Court workshops, c.1640, Pierced marble
His Indian palace walls looked alive with carved flower vines so realistic that people reached out to touch stone petals. They expected the marble to feel soft like real flowers.
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This wasn’t just decoration; it was an art revolution. Rigid stone walls had become gardens of paradise.
Artists learned to blend styles: Persian elegance with Indian energy, Islamic patterns with European realism.
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The artistic mixing during the Mughal golden age (1556-1658) created something entirely new. It stands as one of history’s greatest examples of cultures coming together to make beautiful art.
Treasures of the Mughal Court Exhibition wall panel
Treasures of the Mughal Court, organised by the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) and the Hong Kong Palace Museum (HKPM), presents one hundred examples from the Mughal golden age.
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From marble gardens, jewel-studded treasures, and delicately painted book pages, this exhibition expands on the history and art developed during this pivotal time period.
Altar frontal, Gujarat, c.1600, Teak inlaid with ivory, bone and coloured wood, overlaid with black lac, This wooden panel inlaid with ivory can be seen as the product of the integration of local and European art within the Mughal realm. Presumably commissioned by Portuguese Christians from a Gujarati workshop, it originally functioned as an altar frontal, forming the top part of a table.
The exhibition opens with the most magnificent example of Mughal architecture: the Taj Mahal.
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Projections of intricate stone inlays along the gallery walls, actual stone carvings, and a multimedia recreation of this 375-year-old monument offer a hint of the artistic achievement of this time.
Magnificent Taj Mahal
It is hard not to be awed by this marble masterpiece.
Emily Hannam, Curator, South Asia at the V&A, provided a narrative to explain how the Mughal prosperity combined Persian, Indian, Islamic and European influences to spark an artistic revolution that reshaped art and architecture across the early modern world.
Descent from the cross, Court workshops, c.1590-1600, Opaque watercolour and gold on paper, Emperor Akbar and his successor Jahangir shared a profound interest in European art. Akbar invited Jesuit missionaries to the Mughal court, which led to the introduction of European prints and drawings
The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty that first came from Central Asia. The founder, Emperor Babur (1483–1530), had ancestors from both the Timurid princes of Central Asia and from Genghis Khan and the Mongol dynasty.
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The name “Mughal” is the Persian way to say “Mongol.” When Akbar (1542-1605) became emperor in 1556, the empire was small.
Emperor Akbar being entertained by Azim Khan at Dipalpur in 1571, Jagan, Asir, Sur Das, Madhav (Court workshops), c.1590-1595, Opaque watercolour and gold on paper
He was only fourteen when he took the throne, but he soon grew the kingdom. Akbar made diplomatic alliances in northern India and built a stable empire known for religious tolerance.
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Akbar ruled over a diverse community in South Asia. The Mughal court included people of many religions, backgrounds, and cultures.
Mughal princes married Hindu Rajput wives
Mughal princes married Hindu Rajput wives, making their in-laws and relatives Hindu as well. This helped to unite and govern this varied population.
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Because the court was so diverse, artists were willing to come from across South Asia, leading to the rise of a new and unique style of art.
Punch daggers (left) c.1800, Steel, jade (nephrite), (centre) c.1650-1690, Watered steel overlaid with gold, (right) c.1700-1750, Watered steel, gold, silver, copper. The punch dagger is a handheld weapon for close combat. Known for its effectiveness in penetrating armour, it was designed to be gripped by its two horizontal parallel bars and thrust forward. Ceremonial punch daggers were worn tucked into belts and had hilts made from various materials, including gold and nephrite jade.
The exhibition begins with craft traditions that predate the Mughals, providing a starting point for this new art style.
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A dagger originally overlaid with gold, but which has worn away, has been portrayed in paintings which date it to the 1600s.
Dagger with curved blade, Court workshops, c.1580-1600, watered steel, gold
It features elephants that morph into tigers. This idea of the composite animal is a common theme in pre-Mughal art.
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A rider on an elephant attacking a rider on a horse is carved into the top of the blade. A reminder that the Mughals were originally from Central Asia, a horse-based warrior society.
When they arrived in India, they adapted to an elephant-based warrior society, adopting elephants and tigers as potent royal symbols.
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One of the Indian crafts appreciated by Akbar was mother-of-pearl inlaying. Akbar conquered the province of Gujarat in the 1570s, where they harvested the mother-of-pearl from sea snails.
Ewer, Gujarat, c.1600-1625, Mother-of-pearl, metal wires
This iridescent material was inlaid into wood furniture, like boxes and tables. Many examples of Gujarati mother-of-pearl from this period are available, not just because the Mughals were obsessed with them, but so too were Europeans.
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Akbar was probably the greatest patron of book art that India has ever seen. One of the great ironies of Mughal art history was that he never learned to read.
Casket, Gujarat, c.1600, Teak overlaid with mother-of-pearl and black lac, with brass mounts
Some scholars have suggested he may have been dyslexic, but there was never any suggestion that his illiteracy was a detriment.
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He had a prodigious memory and could recite and compose his own poetry. He had books read aloud to him, was deeply invested in his children’s education, and he possessed a library of more than 20,000 volumes.
Folios from a Qur’an, c.1600-1625, Opaque watercolour, ink, and gold on paper. Calligraphy was considered the highest form of art at the Mughal court. The presence of official seals and dated inscriptions of royal librarians reveal that this manuscript was part of the Mughal imperial collection for over a century
Akbar was also a connoisseur of gold work. The Mughal goldsmith’s workshop was the most important of the palace workshops.
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All significant objects, including thrones and furniture, were made of gold and inlaid with jewels.
Mughal treasury looted
However, few authentic gold artefacts from this period survive. Most were lost in 1739, following Nader Shah’s invasion of Delhi and the subsequent looting of the Mughal treasuries, which took everything back to Tehran. It took 100 workmen fifteen days to melt it all down.
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Examples of Mughal gold work of this time illustrate the Kundan technique, where jewels are set in lac, a natural red substance used as a setting.
Thumb ring, court workshops, c.1615-1620, Gold set with rubies and emeralds, enamelled on the inside
Craftsmen then use very pure gold, approximately twenty to twenty-four carats, which they mould at room temperature to secure the stones.
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This method avoids the clumsy claws seen in European jewellery. Most Mughal jewellery from this period was enamelled on the inside.
Thumb ring, Court workshops, c.1650, Jade (nephrite), emeralds, rubies, gold. The thumb ring was an indispensable tool in archery, protecting the archer’s string-holding thumb, and became a fashion accessory at the Mughal court
Jahangir (1569-1627) inherited a large and stable empire and continued his father’s legacy of efficient administration and patronage of the arts.
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When Sir Thomas Roe, the English ambassador, visited in 1616, he called it the treasury of the world.
Dagger with curved blade and scabbard, Court workshops, c.1620, Hilt: gold over an iron core set with rubies, diamonds, emeralds, glass, ivory, agate; blade: watered steel; scabb
He said he’d never seen so much gold and jewels, and that Jahangir, on that day, must have been wearing more jewels than all the rulers of Europe combined.
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A Mughal favourite jewel was white nephrite jade, which has a milky, translucent quality that feels cool to the touch and was believed to have magical healing properties.
Pendant, Court workshops, c.1610-1620, Jade (nephrite) with rubies, emerald and gold inlay
The star attraction of this exhibition is a talisman pendant featuring white nephrite jade and floral designs, along with four tiny Hoopoe birds, each with small crests on their heads.
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In Persian tradition and poetry, Hoopoes are linked to King Solomon’s wisdom and Emperor Jahangir was called the Solomon of his age.
Ceremonial spoon, Court workshops, c.1600, Gold over a lac core, set with rubies, emeralds and diamonds
These Hoopoe birds and the pendant’s remarkable quality suggest the emperor himself wore it.
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A dagger and sheath feature similar white nephrite jade inlaid with hundreds of rubies and emeralds. Ostriches are depicted, a bird not native to South Asia.
Dagger, Court workshop, c.1610-20. Nephrite jade hilt and scabbard set with rubies, emeralds and a pearl in kundan settings; watered steel blade with gold-overlaid decoration
These were presumably inspired by live ostriches, which were given as gifts to Jahangir, who loved rare and wonderful things and kept a menagerie that included a pair of turkeys.
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These exotic animals were also depicted in natural history paintings by the top court artist, Ustad Mansur.
North American Turkey, Mansur (Court workshops), c.1612, Opaque watercolour and gold on paper
Done in a style that is neither South Asian nor earlier Islamic, they are like natural history paintings done by European explorers interested in scientific study.
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Mansur was one of the most celebrated painters at the Mughal court, known for his skill in depicting birds, animals, and plants.
A pair of cranes, after a lost painting by Mansur, Court, workshops, c.1800, Opaque watercolour and gold on paper
Many of his designs show the influence of European botanical prints that had reached the Mughal court through trade, and he blended this European naturalism with the elegance of Mughal miniature painting.
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The floral motifs he painted around the borders of his prints often echo the decorative inlays found on major monuments such as Akbar’s tomb.
Celestial globe, Qa’im Muhammad, Lahore, c.1626-1627, Brass inlaid with silver
The reign of Shah Jahan (1592-1666) was known for its floral motif and for elevating Mughal art to new levels of luxury and extravagance.
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He was also the greatest patron of Mughal architecture. It was he who built the Taj Mahal in Agra to honour his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1631, giving birth to their fourteenth child.
The craft of enamelling, initially introduced from Europe during Emperor Akbar’s reign, was further developed in Emperor Shah Jahan’s workshops. His craftsmen used a distinctive red, green and white colour palette, mimicking rubies and emeralds inlaid on nephrite jade and echoing the inlaid marble buildings of Shah Jahan’s palaces.
All of Shah Jahan’s major building projects use a technique called pachikari, a process of inlaying precious stones into marble.
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Stones from all over the Mughal court territories were chosen for their colour and texture, designed to look like flowers.
Balustrades from a palace, Agra, c.1700-1800, Marble inlaid with semi-precious hardstones
These floral motifs were a metaphor for the Mughal Empire as a garden of paradise under his rule.
They evoked an ideal world, an eternal springtime in which nothing decayed. In all the Mughal court palaces, it was an eternal spring.
Rock crystal cup, Court workshops, c.1620, Rock crystal, rubies, emeralds, dark blue glass, gold, feathers, miniature portraits
We see this not only in the architecture, but also in the jade and the textiles from this period.
After Shah Jahan’s death, his son, Aurangzeb, became emperor. Alamgir came to the throne, greatly expanded the Mughal Empire, but overexpansion weakened it, leading to its gradual decline and eventual demise in the 1850s.
“Water pipe” base, Court workshops, c.1700, Enamelled and gilded glass, “Water pipe” mouthpiece, Court workshops, c.1700, Jade (nephrite), enamel on gold, clear cabochons in silver-gilt settings
The artistic traditions shaped during the Mughal court period continue to live on.
As hereditary master artisans moved to new centres of power in South Asia, whether serving Hindu Rajput, Sikh, or Muslim rulers, they carried with them their refined skills and signature motifs, particularly the intricate floral designs.
Wine bowls, cup and Dagger hilt, c.1640-1650, rock crystal
Passed down through generations, these crafts have left a lasting imprint on regional styles and continue to inspire contemporary South Asian artisans today.
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From Akbar’s bold blending of Hindu and Persian traditions to Jahangir’s careful study of nature, and finally to Shah Jahan’s transformation of buildings into poetry, each emperor added key elements to create something entirely new.
Ram’s head dagger, 17th to 18th century, Watered steel, rock crystal, gold, rubies, emeralds
They made a visual language that proved art’s unique power to cross cultural boundaries while staying, distinctly Mughal.
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The Mughal court’s artistic achievement shows us the creative power of cultural meeting.
In an age often marked by rigid boundaries and fear of difference, the Mughal court workshops reveal that the most extraordinary beauty comes not from isolation, but from the willingness to learn from others.
Spinel, c.1449 or earlier-1755, Carved spinel. This spinel held special significance for the Mughal emperors because it was engraved with the name of their ancestor Ulugh Beg (r.1411-1449), a sultan of the Timurid dynasty. In 1621, Shah Abbas (r.1587-1629) of Iran gifted it to Emperor Jahangir. The emperor ordered his engraver Sa’ida to inscribe his own name and the year on it. Later, the name of Shah Jahan and his son Aurangzeb were also engraved on it.
By blending four traditions, the Mughals started an artistic revolution that changed not just Indian arts but also how people thought about beauty across the early modern world.
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Each tradition offered something special – Persian refinement, Indian vitality, Islamic order, and European realism – and together they created a unique Mughal court style that still inspires artists today.
Text and photos Martin Wray
